Foods native to the Americas we might have been aware of

As I continue with my series for Native American Heritage Month, I thought about what foods we enjoy today that was introduced by the Native Americans. Just as spices were introduced to Europe through exploration of the East, a variety of foods were introduced to the world known as the Colombian Exchange. The world today owes the Native Americas of North and South America for many of the food it enjoys. Approximately, 60% of the world’s food originated in the New World. From fruits to vegetables to meats, the Native Americans enjoyed a vast and varied diet. Traditionally thought to be mainly hunter-gatherer societies, Native American tribes were also farmers who cultivated a wide variety of foods.

1. Tomatoes: First cultivated in South America in the region of Chile to Ecuador, birds are believed to have carried the seeds spreading them to present day Mexico as early as 800 BCE. The Aztecs embraced the red tomato as well as the green husked tomatoes known as tomatillo to become a staple in their diets. Europeans first feared the tomatoes. They thought they were poisonous as tomatoes are a member of the nightshade family. There is some debate about how the tomato reached Europe. One story states that Hernan Cortes brought the plant in 1521 while another story states that Christopher Columbus might have brought it back in 1493. The first mention of the tomato in European writings was in 1544. However, it wasn’t incorporated into Italian cuisine until the late 17^th or early 18^th century.

2. Potatoes: Usually associated with the Irish and the Great Famine of 1845, the potato was first cultivated by pre-Inca peoples of Peru between 3700-3000 BCE. Over 3,000 varieties of potatoes can be found in the Andes of South America. First introduced in Europe in the 16^th century by the Spanish, the potato has been estimated to be responsible for a quarter of the growth in the Old World population and urbanization between 1700 and 1900 as the potato yields abundantly with little effort. European farmers were skeptical of the potato but soon it became a staple in European diets. North American, however, didn’t see the potato until the Irish immigrants brought them in the 1700s although a wild variety of potato can be found as far north as Mexico and Texas. 

3. Maize (Corn): I’m sure everyone is familiar with corn as originating in the New World. However, many do not realize how important maize is to the Native peoples. First cultivated in Mexico and Central America, maize plays a vital role in many Native cultures. Corn is one of the Three Sisters, along with squash and beans. Referred to as a relative, corn is essential in many creation stories. For example, Little Giver is a corn spirit in southeastern tribal stories. He presented the people with the gift of corn. Selu of Cherokee legend is a goddess associated with fertility. The Mayans believed that humans were fashioned from corn and based their calendar on the planting season. The Zuni people of southwestern US has a story of the 8 corn maidens whose dance helped the corn grow.

4. Berries: Cranberries were used as food, wound medicine and dye by the Northeastern natives. Due to its bitterness, cranberries were used as a part of a tonic which was given for various ailments. The Algonquian peoples called the berry, sassamanash, and introduced it to starving settlers in Massachusetts. In the 1820s, cranberries were shipped to Europe and became popular in Nordic countries as well as Russia. Currants were used by many native tribes for medicinal purposes. Blackfoot natives used currant roots for treatment for kidney disease and menstrual issues. The Cree natives used currants as a fertility enhancer. The strawberry we know today are a crossbreed of two New World strawberries: Fragaria virginiana from eastern North America and Fragaria chiloensis of South America. The two species were first bred in Brittany, France in 1750s.

5. Squash: The word comes from a native word askutasquash, meaning “a green thing eaten raw” from the Narragansett, an Algonquian tribe of the Rhode Island area. Although most natives would eat various squash raw, they were also dried and roasted. The most common native squash is the pumpkin. Pumpkins are thought to have originated in Mexico area between 7,000 to 5,500 BCE. Pumpkin seeds, also called “pepitas” have been discovered by archaeologists in caves of Mexico dating back to 7,000 BCE. The natives used pumpkins not only as a food source but medicine as well. In particular, the seeds were dried and roasted and used for intestinal issues and kidney aliments. Another native squash is the acorn squash. The seeds were the most consumed part of the acorn squash as they were dried and stored for a food for lean times as well as for journeys.

6. Meats: While Native Americans consumed little to no meat in their everyday diets, they consumed various wild and domesticated animals. Tribes near water sources consumed various fish, lobster and shellfish. For example, the costal tribes of California consumed abalone. In California’s Northern Channel Island, the natives there gathered and consumed abalone for nearly 12,000 years. Turkey is another meat source that was popular as a feast food especially for the Mayans and the Aztecs who revered the wild turkey known as huexolotlin as a manifestation of the trickster god, Tezcatlipoca. Turkeys were domesticated and spread as a food source from Central America north through the southwest and the eastern America. The Muscovy duck was often fattened and eaten as a feast food in Mexico, Central and South America. The duck is thought to originate on the Miskito Coasts of Nicaragua and Honduras.

In conclusion, this list is just a small portion for the wide variety of food which originated with the New World. I found it interesting that many of us cannot think of the potato without thinking of the Irish or even Italian food with the tomato based pasta sauces. These foods are so engrained in those ethnic cuisine, we don’t realize that they were always there. It wasn’t until the exploration of the New World that the dishes we know today came about. Many of the foods I listed are among my favorite foods. How many of your favorites are on the list? 

The History of Lacrosse you may not have realized

Lacrosse is a game many of us may not be familiar with. Many of us don’t know that its origins either. The game of lacrosse has its origins with the Native Americans of Canadian and eastern United States. It is one of the oldest sports in North America. A version of the game originated in Canada as early as 1100 AD. It was a game played with a ball and a stick and would begin as the ball was thrown into the air and the two teams rushing to catch it. The game had important significance to the Natives of North America. The game we now know today was extensively modified by Europeans in the 19^th century.

Different tribes had various names for the game. The Onondaga called it dehuntshigwa’es or “men hit a rounded object.” The eastern Cherokee called it da-nah-wah’uwsdi or “little war.” The Mohawk called it begadwe or “little brother of war.” The game generally tended to be a huge mob of players, ranging from 100 to 1,000 men, and were major events which could last several days. The two teams were generally made up of men from opposing villages in an open field between the two villages. The rules of the game would be decided the day before. Generally there was no out-of-bounds and the goals would range from 500 yards to 6 miles and would be chosen by natural landmarks such as large rocks or trees. The teams would play from sunup to sundown. On the stick there would be placed a mark about chest high. Hits below the mark were not awarded any points. Hits above the mark were awarded one point, hits to the top half of the stick were worth two points and hits to the very top of the stick were worth three points. Also the ball could not be touched with the players’ hands. Scores were loosely kept by the audience or the players and medicine men would act as coaches.

The game would serve different purposes in the lives of the natives. First, it was used to settle any intertribal disputes. The winning team often brought glory and honor to their tribe. Second, it was used to toughen young warriors for combat. As the game could be played for days, it required conditioning and stamina that would be essential for victory in actual battle. Third, it was used simply for recreation. Many native tribes celebrate their heritage with playing the game. The Haudenosaunee Confederacy (or Iroquois Nation) is one example of the game as a time honored tradition. Lastly, the game served religious purposes. The tribes would play together for the “pleasure of the Creator” and to pray together. The game is known as The Creator’s Game. There were rituals before and after the game which were important. The players would decorate their bodies with paint and charcoal as well as decorate their sticks. There were strict taboos about the foods the players could consume before the game. Wagers would be made before the game. After the game, a ceremonial dance would be performed followed by a large feast.

The game was first observed by French Jesuit missionaries in the 1630s. They condemned the game, deeming it too violent and for the use of betting. Jean de Brebeuf wrote about the game and gave it the name lacrosse. He described the Huron playing the game in 1636 using the French term for field hockey, le jeu de la crosse. Despite the Jesuit opposition, the colonists were fascinated by the game. By 1740, many French colonists would be playing it. The interest in the game grew in Canada during the 1800s. In 1856, a Canadian dentist, William George Beers, founded the Montreal Lacrosse Club and is known as the father of modern lacrosse. He would further alter the game by codifying it in 1867. He shorten the length of the game to first team to reach 5 goal or lead by 3. He reduced the number of team members to twelve. He regulated the field to 200 yards. And he redesigned the stick and ball. The Mohawk Lacrosse Club in Troy, New York became the first organized club in the US. By the 20^th century, many high schools, colleges and universities would adopt the game as a league sport. It also became a sport for the 1904 and 1908 Summer Olympics but would be later dropped as an official sport. Today, an indoor version called box lacrosse is played by a team of five.

In conclusion, lacrosse is another example of the Native Americans influence on our lives today. A game that was played for the Creator, it has many purposes in the lives of the Native Americans’ lives and community. It served as training, recreational and religious purposes. For many Native tribes today, it is still played for the Creator and as a celebration of their heritage. Today, it is an organized sport in various parts of the United States and Canada. Lacrosse may have a French name but it is a Native sport at its core. 

Contemporary Native American Literature

Native American literature is traditionally oral stories handed down through the generations. Contemporary Native American literature saw a resurgence in the late 1960s during a time some have called the Native American Renaissance, a term considered by some academics to be controversial, and gave rise to a new generation of Native American writers. According to Anna Combs, “the purpose of Contemporary Native American Literature is to” fuse the literate and oral cultures and to construct an ethnic identity of Native Americans in the late twentieth century.” I will discuss three books which I see as examples of this purpose.

The first book I would like to discuss is N. Scott Momaday’s House Made of Dawn. It was published in 1968 and was created with the resurgence in modern Native American literature. The title is a reference to the connectedness between the spiritual and physical worlds as well as the people and the land. The story follows Abel as he returns to the reservation in New Mexico after fighting in WWII. His grandfather, Francisco, tries to instill in him a sense of native traditions and values. However, the war has left Abel broken and shattered. Abel begins to wander, eventually ended up in Los Angeles, California where life is difficult for him as many criticize him for not assimilating to the modern world. When he returns, once again, to the reservation to care for his dying grandfather, he hears the stories of his people. His grandfather stresses the importance of staying connected to the traditions. Abel participates in a traditional ritual which helps him return to the land, his people and his place in the world. I also read this book for a Native American literature class and again it stayed with me because the story is intertwined with poetry and I love poetry. The imagery and words are powerful as it highlights that many of our struggles are spiritual as well as physical. It is not a book to rush through. It needs to be read slowly, absorbing and contemplating the images and meanings. I still have my copy from college along with my notes in the margins. I’ve read many criticisms about this book and I find that many who disliked it do not truly understand the poetry as Momaday is a self-described poet and not a novelist. Regardless, I found House Made of Dawn very powerful.

The second book I would like to discuss is Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony. I read this book for a Native American literature class in college over ten years ago. It is a book that has stayed with me. The imagery, the message, the process of recovery the main character goes through are powerful. The story follows Tayo, a half-white, half Laguna Pueblo man, who has returned from WWII. The white doctors say he’s suffering from battle fatigue (we’d now call it PTSD). He is struggling with the death of his cousin, Rocky, during the Bataan Death March of 1942 and the death of his uncle, Josiah, back home. He believes he let his uncle down as he was unable to keep his promises. After spending several years in a mental health facility, he is sent home to his aunt and grandmother. The story connects with the three main Pueblo spiritual entities who created the world. The fight in the spiritual world connects with Tayo and his own spiritual fight to rid himself of his guilt and pain. Tayo is key to the healing of the land as well as his own healing. With multiple timelines weaving into one and mixtures of spiritual, past and present, Ceremony is a story of how it’s all connected and how moving forward often involves confronting the past and making what peace you can with it.

A final book I would like to discuss is Mary Crow Dog’s memoir Lakota Woman. She is a Sicangu Lakota. Born September 26, 1954 and raised on the Rosebud Indian Reservation in South Dakota. In her memoir, she describes her childhood and her young adulthood during the American Indian Movement of the 1970s. The book details her participation in the 1972 Trail of Broken Treaties, a cross-country protest to bring national attention to the issues effecting the Native American people such as living standards and inadequate housing. She also describes her participation in the 1973 Indian Occupation at Wounded Knee. Her description of the occupation is the part which has stayed with me. It began on February 27, 1973 when an estimated 200 Oglala Lakota and the followers of the American Indian Movement seized and occupied the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. The town was chosen for its symbolic value as it was the site of the 1890 massacre where 300 men, women and children were killed. Her memoir was published in 1990 and she remained active in the Native American church until her death on February 14, 2013 at the age of 58.

In conclusion, there are many more examples of great Native American literature which help portray the Native American life, culture and traditions. There is power of these stories is in the imagery and in the words the author uses to tell the story of these characters. As an avid bookworm, I find profound life lessons and truths in stories outside my culture and the world as I experience it. I highly recommend reading these books I have discussed as well as other Native American authors. You will see and, hopefully, understand the world in a different way.

References

Combs, Anna Contemporary Native American Literature January 15, 2014. prezi.com/1eixsbcn0rqi/contemporary-native-american-literature/ Retrieved November 16, 2017.

Native American Heritage Month: a time of celebration and contemplation

November is Native American Heritage Month. First sponsored by the American Indian Heritage Foundation through the efforts of its founder Pale Moon Rose, the aims of the heritage month is to provide a platform for Native people to share their culture, traditions, music, crafts, dance, and ways and concepts of life. It also gives Native Americans the opportunity to express to their community, at the city, country and state levels, their concerns and solutions for building bridges of understand and friendship. I’ve been interested and have great respect for Native Americans and their history and culture since the seventh grade. I will touch briefly on the topics of culture and traditions, music, crafts and dance, and ways and concepts of life in this post.  There are approximately 566 federally recognized Native American tribes in the US each with their own culture, language and history, and each with their own unique traditions, housing, dress and food.

I want to address the common misconceptions about Native Americans and there are many; however, I will address a few. First, the Natives weren’t that advanced when the Europeans arrived. They were primitive and similar to a third world country. The truth is they were advanced just different than from what the Europeans were used to. They had a complex society with medical advances that scientists today are using the plants they were as medicines today. The French who traded furs with many different tribes, had a great respect for the Natives and recognized the things they actually did better. Second, Indian Royalty. We’ve all heard people claim that they are descended from an Indian princess. My family was included in this as we were told we were descended from a Canadian Indian princess. While I was excited to be descended from First Nations (as they are called in Canada), I was skeptical of the princess part. Why? Because the Natives had no concept of royalty. Chiefs were not ordained from birth to lead the tribes. They were often chosen for their bravery and leadership and their family may have been well treated and respected but they were not royalty. I think the idea of royalty is how the Europeans tried to explain the Natives’ societal hierarchy and it stuck. Lastly, Native Americans worship nature. While they do have a profound respect for nature and are greatly in tuned with it, they do not worship it. There is usually a god they worship who represent an aspect of their daily lives. For instance, they would pray to the god who would help them with the crops or the hunt or. They also have a concept of a God, usually called the Great Spirit and an evil spirit similar to Satan.

With so many different tribes in the United States and each unique, it is hard to speak in general terms about the Natives’ culture and way of life. The Plains Natives were different from the Natives who lived in the Desert and those who lived in the Northern Mountains. No matter what area of the country, the Natives contributed a great deal to our country both past and present. Many foods were introduced to the world’s diets and became staples were first cultivated by the Natives of the New World. Foods such as corn, potatoes, peanuts, tomatoes, chocolate, pineapples and avocadoes just to name a few (Scholastic). Natives were also the first to raise different types of animals for food, for example, turkeys. They also were the first to cultivate cotton, rubber and tobacco. Approximately 60% of the world’s food supply came from the Natives agricultural system (Gibson). Native Americans contributed a great deal to medicine as well. The Canadian Natives knew how to prevent scurvy by eating foods rich in vitamin C and passed the information to European sailors (Scholastic). The Shoshane tribes used crushed stone seed powder as an oral contraceptive while the Potawatomi nation used the dogbane herb for contraceptives centuries before modern medicine developed the birth control pill. The rate in which Native Americans have participated in military service is higher than any other ethnic groups. Most notably the Code Talkers in World War II; however, Native Americans served in the Korean, Vietnam, Desert Storm and the Iraq wars as well (Gibson). The concept behind American Sign Language originated with the hand signals used by the Natives and traders. Lastly, many of our English words are Native in origin such as barbecue, hammock and hurricane as well as many American cities are Native words, for example, Miami, Wichita, Spokane and Seattle (Gibson).

I also understand how many Native peoples would feel conflicted or even insulted at the idea of a month dedicated to people who were systematically abused and still suffer. Sunny Clifford wrote in an opinion article, “As much as I appreciate the gesture of Native American Heritage Month I feel torn about it. I’m torn because this nation needs a month to remember how it came to be. No, if you want to honor Native Americans then teach the real history in your schools.” I understand her conflict. While I think it’s great that a culture gets to be highlighted for a month; however, it is insulting that for the rest of the year, their part in history is largely ignored. I also hate that while I was in school, most of our country’s history is taught by dates and major events. I did not truly learn about Natives in our country’s history until I took history and ethnic studies classes in college. Unfortunately, history is expansive and detailed that it would very difficult to teach it as the individuals who lived it deserved to have it retold and remembered. History is only one subject that American children must take and unfortunately the focus is not on history but on math and science. Another hurdle is the Winston Churchill quote “History is written by the victors,” those who “win” are those who can write about “how” events occurred and who was at fault. Often, the victors or those writing about the victors will ignore or rewrite facts in order to make the victors look better. Some information gets lost to the sands of time and other information gets drowned out by the loud and more powerful. It is will take an extra effort to make sure every voice in American history is heard.

In conclusion, there is no denying that the Native Americans were not a backward or primitive society that many European settlers would have history believe. The Native peoples contributed not only to the United States but the world as well. I still have a deep respect for the Native peoples and I continue to discover new things about their culture, their way of life and their contributions to my life in ways I never knew before. Unfortunately, there are many myths about the Native tribes which are still believed by a vast majority of people. Whether it is by design or it’s by ignorance, our educational system has ignored the voices of those who lived through historical events. Only through education can we dispel these myths and see the Native Americans as great contributors to our country and our world. For the next couple weeks I will feature a post about an aspect of Native Americans in our country through books, films and sports.

References

Clifford, Sunny What Native American Heritage Month Means to Me. Indian Country Today. November 24, 2013. http://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/opinions/what-native-american-heritage-month-means-to-me/ Retrieved November 4, 2017.

Gibson, Kelly Native American Contributions to the U.S. September 22, 2011 http://blog.nativepartnership.org/history-of-native-american-day-part-2/ Retrieved November 5, 2017

Scholastic Native American Contributions www.scholastic.com/teachers/articles/teaching-content/native-american-contributions/ Retrieved November 5, 2017.